Osteology: types, morphology and histology of bones (with examples).
Syndesmology: types of junctions, general features, types and movements
of articulations (with examples).
Myology: types of muscle tissue, histology of cross-striated muscles.
Ultrastructure of the neuromuscular synapse. The concept of the motor unit.
Myology: anatomical features of the skeletal muscles (types, groups,
etc...). The main muscle groups of the human body. Examples illustrating
the function and innervation of the muscle groups.
The main anatomical features of the oral cavity and the pharynx. Cranial
bones participating in the formation of the oral cavity. Tonsils in the
oral cavity and pharynx.
Histological layers of the alimentary tract. Histological features
of the mucous membrane. Glands and covering epithelia in the mucous membrane
of the gastrointestinal tract.
The anatomical structures of the respiratory system. Histological features
of the bronchi, bronchioli and alveoli. The innervation of the bronchioli.
Anatomical and histological description of the kidney. Anatomy of the
other organs of the urinary system. Anatomy of the female and male internal
genital organs.
The cells of the human blood: morphological characteristics and quantity
in the peripheral blood. The organs of the immune system. The histological
structure of the lymph node.
The gross anatomical parts of the central nervous system. The blood
supply of the human brain. The anatomical structures participating in the
production and circulation of the cerebrospinal fluid.
Cell types in the nervous system. Histological structure of the neuron.
The structure of synapses. Anatomy of the spinal cord reflex arc. The basic
structure of the autonomic nervous system.
The human placenta: its formation and basic structure. The histological
structure of the placental villus.
The main periods of human development from the fertilization to birth.
The formation of the amnion. Amnion diagnostics.
Body fluid compartments: characteristics, determination.
Movement of substances between the body fluid compartments. Osmosis,
diffusion, filtration.
Blood plasma. Chemical composition. Proteins. Buffers.
Fibrinolysis, anticlotting mechanisms, anticoagulants (in vivo, in
vitro). Vitamin K.
Anatomy of the heart: chambers, valves. Origin and propagation of excitation
in the heart. Pacemaker potential.
The morphological and functional characteristics of the heart muscle.
The excitability of the heart muscle. The normal ECG.
The cardiac cycle. Variations in atrial, ventricular, and aorta pressures
and volumes. Heart sounds.
The effects of the autonomic nervous system on the heart. Effects of
extracellular Ca and K ions on the heart.
Cardiac output. Normal values, determination, regulation. (Starling
preparation. Frank-Starling principle. Importance of venous return.)
Principles of hemodynamics. Flow, pressure and resistance. Poiseuille's
law. The limitations of Poiseuille's law.
Principles of hemodynamics. Viscosity and resistance. Laminar and turbulent
flow. Critical closing pressure. Laplace's law. Compliance.
The structure of the systemic and pulmonary circulation. Variations
in flow velocity, the diameter of the vascular bed, pressure, and resistance
in the systemic circulation. Blood reservoirs.
The arterial system. The structure of the wall of large vessels and
arteries. The compression chamber function of the large vessels. The arterial
pressure. Definition, characteristics, measurement.
Microcirculation. Structure. Types of capillaries. Characteristics
of capillary circulation (diameter, velocity). Exchange of fluid between
the capillary and the interstitium: filtration. diffusion.
The structure of the interstitium. Composition of the interstitium
and lymph. Lymph vessels, lymphatic circulation. The function of lymphatic
circulation.
Venous system. The wall of the veins. Central venous pressure and its
significance. Factors maintaining and promoting the venous flow. Muscle
pump, the role of valves, the effects of gravity.
Regulation of circulation: autoregulation, basal tone, vasoconstrictor
tone. The role of tissue metabolites, oxygen and carbon dioxide.
Regulation of circulation: renin-angiotensin; ANH.
Regulation of circulation: vasopressin, glucocorticoids, thyroid hormones.
Regulation of circulation: kinins, prostaglandins, histamine, serotonin,
endothelins, NO (EDRF)
Adrenergic mechanisms in cardiovascular regulation. Adrenergic receptors.
The role of adrenaline and noradrenaline.
Sympathetic innervation in the cardiovascular system. Sympathetic effects.
Parasympathetic innervation in the cardiovascular system. Parasympathetic
effects.
The bulbar vasomotor area. Afferentation, efferentation, function.
Baroreceptors. The carotis sinus reflex: functional range, effects, significance.
Other baroreceptor reflexes.
Circulation of the skin. Vascular reactions of the skin. Circulation
of skeletal muscles.
Circulation of the placenta. Fetal circulation.
Pulmonary circulation. Gross anatomical description. Pressure. The
effects of gravity. Regulation.
Airways. Gross anatomy. Function. Airways resistance. Regulation of
the activity of bronchial smooth muscle. Regulation of bronchial secretion.
Bronchoconstrictor and bronchodilator substances.
The mechanics of inspiration and expiration. Diaphragm and intercostal
muscles. Lung volumes. Minute volume. Forced expiratory volume. Dead space.
Intrapulmonar and intrapleural pressure. Surface tension in the alveoli.
Partial pressure. Gas exchange in the lungs: diffusion of gases, the
Partial pressure gradients.
Oxygen transport in the blood. Factors influencing the affinity of
hemoglobin for oxygen: the oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curves.
Gas exchange in the tissues. Carbon dioxide transport in the blood.
Respiratory areas in the pons and medulla. Function, afferentation,
stimuli. Reflexes in the regulation of respiration. Chemoreceptor reflexes.
Comparisons of the effects of oxygen and carbon dioxide. Stretch receptors.
J-receptors.
Hypoxia. Definition, forms.
Thermoregulation. Mechanisms of defense against heat and cold.
Thermoregulation. Fever and hyperthermia.
Membrane transport mechanisms. Lipids, water-soluble substances, and
ions. Facilitated diffusion.
Primary and secondary active transports. Examples. The function of
the Na-K pump.
Donnan equilibrium. Resting potential. K and Na permeability, ion pumps.
Action potential. Phases, changes in excitability, all-or-none principle.
Excitation in the heart muscle, smooth muscle, and pacemaker tissues.
Ionic mechanisms of the genesis of action potentials. Voltage gated
ion channels. Blockade of the voltage gated ion channels.
Skeletal muscle. Propagation of action potential. Molecular basis of
contraction-relaxation. Muscle proteins. Excitation-contraction coupling.
Calcium.
Types of Contractions. Summation, tetanus. Isometric and isotonic contractions.
Muscle length - contraction relationships. Fast and slow muscles.
Smooth muscle. Types. Electrical and mechanical properties. Chemical
stimulation.
Comparison of electrical and chemical synapses. EPSP, IPSP.
The mechanism of transmitter release. The axon terminal. Calcium. Presynaptic
inhibition. The fate of the released transmitters.
Direct transmitter-gated ionchannels. Nicotinic Ach, glutamate, GABA
and glycine receptors. The role of second messengers in the regulation
of ion channels.
Inhibitory synapses.
Acetylcholine: synthesis, metabolism, receptors. Inhibition of cholinergic
transmission.
The autonomic nervous system. Anatomical organization of the sympathetic
system. Neurotransmission and receptors in the ganglia and postganglionic
neurons. The adrenal medulla.
The autonomic nervous system. Anatomical organization of the parasympathetic
system. Neurotransmission and receptors in the ganglia and postganglionic
neurons.
The neuron: soma, dendrites, axon, axon hillock, synaptic terminal.
Propagation of excitation. Convergence, divergence. Metabolism of neuron.
NGF. Glial cells: types, functions.
